Online harassment and cyberbullying are relatively recent developments that have emerged alongside the widespread integration of information and communication technology (ICT) into our daily lives. It is a compound word, consisting of two main terms – “cyber” and “bullying” – referring to bullying behaviour that occurs in digital spaces, primarily on the internet and via mobile devices. As cyberbullying is inherently linked to the rapid growth and evolution of ICT, its definition is constantly developing and becoming more precise over time. Legal and academic interpretations are gradually adapting to reflect the various forms it can take and the platforms through which it occurs[1]. Cyberbullying ranges from defamatory posts, to threats, and impersonation, which may result in severe mental, psychological, emotional and even financial harm to the victim. In response to these online offences, legal measures have been introduced to curb this conduct. The Cybercrime (Prohibition, Prevention, etc) Act, 2015, aims to address and promote cybersecurity, protect computer systems and networks, detect cyber-crimes and harassment, and protect intellectual property and privacy rights[2].
This study examines various forms of conduct that constitute cyberbullying, the legal implications, challenges associated with enforcement, and the applicable penalties for cyberbullying and online harassment in Nigeria.
Definition of Cyber-bullying
Cyber-bullying is usually used interchangeably with “cyber-stalking”. Notably, the Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc.) Act 2015 uses the term “cyber-stalking”, which is defined as any course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear[3]. Accordingly, sending any form of communication through a computer to intimidate, threaten, or harass another individual in a way that instils fear of death, violence, or physical harm, constitutes cyber-bullying.
According to Black’s Law Dictionary[4], cyberbullying is defined as the willful and repeated harm inflicted through the use of computers, cell phones, and other electronic devices. A good cyberbullying definition also includes the different names by which this crime can be called, such as electronic bullying, e-bullying, SMS bullying, or online harassment[5].
Acts that Amount to Cyber-bullying
In Nigeria, the primary legislation addressing cyberbullying is the Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act, 2015. Sections 24(1)(a)–(b) and 24(2)(a)–(c) of the Act, specifically prohibit the knowing or intentional transmission of offensive or threatening communications via a computer system or networks. Under Section 24(1), a person commits an offence of cyberbullying if he or she:
- Sends, or causes to be sent, any message or material that is grossly offensive, pornographic, indecent, obscene, or menacing in character; or
- Knowingly sends, or causes to be sent, a false message for the purpose of causing annoyance, inconvenience, danger, obstruction, insult, injury, criminal intimidation, enmity, hatred, ill will, or needless anxiety to another.
A person found guilty under subsection (1) of this section is liable, upon conviction, to a fine not exceeding N7,000,000.00 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding three (3) years, or both[6]. Section 24(2) further criminalises cyberbullying and online threats. It provides under subsection (2) of this section that any person who knowingly or intentionally transmits, or causes the transmission of, any communication through a computer system or networks:
- With the intent to bully, threaten, or harass another person, in a manner that places the person in fear of death, violence, or bodily harm
- Containing any threat to kidnap or harm another person, demand a ransom for the release of a kidnapped person, or engaging in cyberstalking for the purpose of extortion; or
- Containing a threat to harm the property or reputation of the addressee or another person (including a deceased person), or a threat to falsely accuse any person of a crime, with the intent to extort money or any other thing of value. Commits an offence and is liable, upon conviction:
- In the case of paragraphs (a) and (b), to a term of imprisonment not exceeding 10 years, or to a fine not more than N25,000,000, or both[7];
- In the case of paragraph (c), to a term of imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or to a fine not more than N15,000,000[8].
Other Statutory Provisions on Cyber-bullying and Online Harassment
- Causing emotional, verbal and psychological abuse – Section 14(1) of the Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act, 2015[9] provides as follows – a person who causes emotional, verbal and psychological abuse on another commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of imprisonment not exceeding one year or to a fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or both[10], and any person who attempts to commit an act of violence against another, provided under subsection (1) of this section, commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of imprisonment not exceeding 6months or to a fine not exceeding N100,000.00 or both[11].
- Compelling action by intimidation – Section 366(a) of the Criminal Code Act[12] criminalizes conduct involving threats or persistent harassment, intended to interfere with a person’s lawful actions. It is an offence to threaten another or cause harm to their person, reputation, property, or persistently follow them, watch or beset their residence or workplace, with the intention of compelling or preventing them from performing a lawful act. Upon conviction, such an offender is liable to imprisonment for one year[13]. The criminal code also criminalizes defamation[14].
- Willfully placing a person in fear of physical injury – Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act, 2015[15], condemns any intentional act or conduct by a person that places another in a state of fear of physical injury. Upon conviction, such a person shall be liable to a term of imprisonment not exceeding 2years or to a fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or both[16]. This Act further criminalizes any attempt by a person to aid, abet, or counsel another to commit the offence provided under subsection (1) of this section; upon conviction, such a person is liable to a term of imprisonment not exceeding 1year or to a fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or both[17].
- Harassment – Section 46 of the Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act 2015[18] defined harassment to mean engaging in a pattern of conduct that induces fear of harm or impairs the dignity of a person, by repeatedly sending, delivering or causing delivery of information to another through means such as letters, electronic mail, text messages, telegrams or other objects to any person[19].
- Intimidation – Any person who intimidates another or attempts to commit an act of violence under subsection (1) of this section commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term of imprisonment not exceeding 1year or to a fine not exceeding N200,000.00 or both[20].
- Right to privacy and Family life – The Constitution protects and guarantees the rights to privacy of every citizen of Nigeria, their homes, correspondence, and telephone conversations, it prohibits any act by another that infringes upon these rights[21]. Victims of privacy infringements can seek redress through Fundamental Human Rights actions.
Forms of Cyber-bullying
- Internet trolling – This is a common form of bullying that takes place in an online community (such as social media sites like Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter), to elicit a reaction or disruption, or simply just for the bully’s own personal amusement[22].
- Hate Speech – This form of cyberbullying involves public expression of hostility or disparaging remarks, directed at individuals or groups. Perpetrators usually use derogatory language to attack their victims, based on characteristics such as race, religion, gender, or sexual orientation[23].
- Visual / Non-Consensual sharing of Private Content – This is a form of bullying that involves posting private and intimate images of another, without consent or publicly revealing personal information of a person (e.g., home addresses, phone numbers) with the intention of inciting harassment.
- Harassment and Threats – This involves repeatedly sending offensive, inappropriate, or threatening messages, which may include vulgar language or distressing graphic images, with the intent to harass or intimidate the targeted individual.
- Impersonation – Cyberbullies may pose or assume the identity of someone else, often the victim, to spread false information or to damage the victim’s reputation[24].
Case Scenarios on Cyber-bullying and Online Harassment in Nigeria
- Attorney General of the Federation v Ayan Olubunmi[25] – The Federal High Court in Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, sentenced Ayan Olubunmi to two years in prison and a fine of N500,000 for posting nude photos of his ex-lover, Arare Monica on Facebook. Ayan had threatened to share explicit images on social media when Monica ended their relationship in 2017. Despite Monica’s plea and an offer of N200,000.00 as an inducement, Ayan posted the pictures as he threatened. The court found Ayan guilty of violating the Cyber Crime Act of 2015, and the judge described the act as disgraceful and barbaric. While the maximum penalty for the offence was a N7 million fine and a three-year prison term, Ayan was sentenced to a two-year prison term and a fine of N500,000.00.
- The TikTok Cyberstalking case – On August 2, 2023, the Federal High Court sentenced a Tik Toker, Okoye Blessing to three years imprisonment or a fine of one hundred and fifty thousand naira, for her actions of posting offensive and defamatory content, spreading false information about a celebrity – Eniola Badmus, and threatening her through various social media platforms. She was convicted on two counts; one count of conspiracy to commit cyberstalking, which is criminalized under Section 27 of the Cybercrimes (prohibition, prevention, etc) Act, 2015, and one count of knowingly causing the transmission of communication via Tiktok, gossip mill tv, remedy blog, and other social media network, which is grossly offensive, false, and to aimed at causing annoyance, inconvenience danger, insult, injury, criminal intimidation, enmity, hatred, and needless anxiety to the prejudice of Eniola Badmus which is an offense punishable under Section 24(1)(b)& (2)(a)& (c) of the Cybercrimes (prohibition, prevention, etc) Act, 2015[26].
- A blogger, by the name Chike Ibezim, was arrested for cyberstalking the former Minister of Works, Babatunde Raji Fashola. He allegedly posted false information about Fashola’s involvement in the drafting of a controversial verdict in the Presidential Election Petition Trial, and that the military had been sent to Fashola’s house, thereby allegedly intending to cast aspersion on the former minister. This act was condemned by the police as being a crime under Section 24 of the Cybercrime (Prohibition, Prevention) Act, 2015[27]
Challenges in Enforcement
While the Cybercrime (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act, 2015 provides a legal framework for addressing cyber-bullying and online harassment in Nigeria. Several challenges hinder their effective enforcement. These challenges encompass various aspects, including but not limited to;
- Anonymity of Perpetrators: Offenders often conceal their identities through fake or anonymous online profiles, making it difficult to trace and prosecute them effectively.
- Public Awareness and Advocacy: In response to the growing incidence of cyberbullying in Nigeria, there has been a notable rise in advocacy efforts, aimed at strengthening legal protections against online harassment. Civil society organizations, and advocacy groups have continued to press for the enactment of targeted legislation that addresses the specific nature of cyberbullying and provides more effective enforcement mechanisms for relevant authorities.
- Jurisdictional Challenges: Cyberbullying often transcends state and national boundaries, complicating enforcement.
- The Role of Education and Preventive Measures: Beyond legal intervention, education and preventive strategies are essential in addressing cyberbullying. Schools, community institutions, and digital platforms are encouraged to adopt policies and programs that promote digital literacy, responsible online conduct, and empathy. By equipping individuals, especially young people, with the tools to identify, prevent, and respond to cyberbullying, society can cultivate a culture of mutual respect and accountability in online interactions.
- Fear of Retaliation: Victims may be reluctant to report cases of cyberbullying and online harassment, due to concerns about retaliation, escalation of abuse, or further psychological harm[28].
Legal Remedies Available to Victims of Cyberbullying
Victims of cyberbullying have access to various legal remedies under the law. As an initial step, it is essential to gather and preserve evidence of the offensive conduct. This includes saving screenshots of abusive messages, posts, or comments, documenting the dates and times of each incident, and where possible, identifying witnesses who may have observed the behaviour.
One of the most frequently sought legal remedies, is the issuance of a restraining order, which legally prohibits the perpetrator from contacting the victim or coming within a specified proximity. In more serious cases, criminal proceedings maybe instituted against the offender for offences such as such as harassment, stalking, or defamation. These offences are punishable under relevant statutes, including the Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act, 2015. In addition to criminal liability, victims may pursue civil remedies or initiate legal actions for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. Such claims may include:
- Intentional infliction of emotional distress
- Defamation; and
- Invasion of privacy
Where the perpetrator is a minor, liability maybe imputed to the minor’s parents or legal guardians, particularly where negligence in supervision can be established[29].
Conclusion
Cyberbullying and online harassment constitute serious offences under the law, thereby carrying penalties, ranging from substantial fines to terms of imprisonment. The Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act, 2015, is the principal legal framework addressing these offences, including cyberstalking and other forms of cyber abuse. These acts are capable of instilling fear, inflicting psychological trauma, causing physical harm, and in extreme cases, leading to death.
As online digital space continues to evolve, cyber abuse must not only be expressly prohibited by law, but must be unequivocally condemned by society at large. Public awareness and prompt reporting of cyber-abuse are essential for ensuring accountability, facilitating enforcement, and safeguarding vulnerable individuals from harm.
[1] https://irtis.muni.cz/media/3083689/online harassment_and_cyberbullying.pdf. > accessed July 19, 2025
[2] Section 1(a)(c) Cybercrime Act, 2025
[3] Section 58, Cybercrime Act, 2025
[4] The Law-Dictionary-2nd ed
[5] https://thelawdictionary.org/article/punishment-for-cyberbullying/
[6] Section 24(1)(a)(b) Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act, 2015
[7] Section 24(2)(a)(b) Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act, 2015
[8] Section 24(2)(c)
[9] Ibid
[10] Section 14(1) Violence Against Persons Prohibition Act, 2015
[11] Section 14(2)
[13] Cap C38 Laws of FRN 2004, s 366
[14] Cap C38 Laws of FRN, 2004, s 375
[15] Ibid
[16] Section 4(1) violence against persons prohibition Act, 2015
[17] Section 4(2)(3) violence against persons prohibition Act, 2015
[18] Ibid
[19] Ibid
[20] Section 18(1) violence against persons prohibition Act, 2015
[21] Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 (as amended), S. 37
[22] Duggan Maeve (October 30, 2014)’’5 facts about online harassment’’ Pew Research Center.
[23] https://www.harlemsolicitors.com/2024/06/25/the-menace-of-cyberbullying-and-cyberstalking-in-nigeria/ > accessed 25 July, 2025
[24] https://businessday.ng/opinion/article/the-adverse-effects-of-cyberbullying-on-society-and-its-legal-implications-in-nigeria/ > accessed July 28, 2025.
[25] (2018 – unreported) being a judgment delivered on 14th October, 2018 by His Lordship, Hon. Justice Taiwo O. Taiwo of the Federal High Court of Nigeria, Ado-Ekiti Division, front page.
[26] < https://lawpavilion.com/blog/courts-judgment-on-tiktoker-cyberstalking-case-against-eniola-badmus-a-step-towards-ensuring-online-safety/ > accessed 29 July, 2025
[27] Oluyemi Ogunseyin, “Police to arraign Ibeziem for cyberstalking, alleging Fashola wrote Tribunal judgement” The Guardian.ng, 06 September 2023) < https://guardian.ng/news/police-to-arraign-ibeziem-for-cyberstalking-alleging-fashola-wrote-tribunal-judgement/ > accessed July 29, 2025
[28] https://chamanlawfirm.com/cyber-bullying-laws-in-nigeria/20perpetrators%20online.-,Challenges/Enforcement,prosecute%20cyber%20bullying%20cases%20effectively > accessed 25 July, 2025
[29] https://jlrjs.com/cyberbullying-and-social-media/ > accessed July 25, 2025